---
kind: "range"
citation: "14 C.F.R. §§ 91.101–91.143"
title: "14"
from: "91.101"
to: "91.143"
count: 26
url: "https://uscodex.org/cfr/14/91.101..91.143"
---

# §91.101. Applicability.


This subpart prescribes flight rules governing the operation of aircraft within the United States and within 12 nautical miles from the coast of the United States.


# §91.103. Preflight action.


Each pilot in command shall, before beginning a flight, become familiar with all available information concerning that flight. This information must include—

- (a) For a flight under IFR or a flight not in the vicinity of an airport, weather reports and forecasts, fuel requirements, alternatives available if the planned flight cannot be completed, and any known traffic delays of which the pilot in command has been advised by ATC;
- (b) For any flight, runway lengths at airports of intended use, and the following takeoff and landing distance information:
  - (1) For civil aircraft for which an approved Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual containing takeoff and landing distance data is required, the takeoff and landing distance data contained therein; and
  - (2) For civil aircraft other than those specified in [paragraph (b)(1)](#b-1) of this section, other reliable information appropriate to the aircraft, relating to aircraft performance under expected values of airport elevation and runway slope, aircraft gross weight, and wind and temperature.

# §91.105. Flight crewmembers at stations.

- (a) **During takeoff and landing, and while en route, each required flight crewmember shall—**
  - (1) Be at the crewmember station unless the absence is necessary to perform duties in connection with the operation of the aircraft or in connection with physiological needs; and
  - (2) **Keep the safety belt fastened while at the crewmember station.**
- (b) Each required flight crewmember of a U.S.-registered civil aircraft shall, during takeoff and landing, keep his or her shoulder harness fastened while at his or her assigned duty station. This paragraph does not apply if—
  - (1) The seat at the crewmember's station is not equipped with a shoulder harness; or
  - (2) **The crewmember would be unable to perform required duties with the shoulder harness fastened.**

# §91.107. Use of safety belts, shoulder harnesses, and child restraint systems.

- (a) Unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator—
  - (1) No pilot may take off a U.S.-registered civil aircraft (except a free balloon that incorporates a basket or gondola, or an airship type certificated before November 2, 1987) unless the pilot in command of that aircraft ensures that each person on board is briefed on how to fasten and unfasten that person's safety belt and, if installed, shoulder harness.
  - (2) No pilot may cause to be moved on the surface, take off, or land a U.S.-registered civil aircraft (except a free balloon that incorporates a basket or gondola, or an airship type certificated before November 2, 1987) unless the pilot in command of that aircraft ensures that each person on board has been notified to fasten his or her safety belt and, if installed, his or her shoulder harness.
  - (3) Except as provided in this paragraph, each person on board a U.S.-registered civil aircraft (except a free balloon that incorporates a basket or gondola or an airship type certificated before November 2, 1987) must occupy an approved seat or berth with a safety belt and, if installed, shoulder harness, properly secured about him or her during movement on the surface, takeoff, and landing. For seaplane and float equipped rotorcraft operations during movement on the surface, the person pushing off the seaplane or rotorcraft from the dock and the person mooring the seaplane or rotorcraft at the dock are excepted from the preceding seating and safety belt requirements. Notwithstanding the preceding requirements of this paragraph, a person may:
    - (i) Be held by an adult, except as outlined in [§ 91.108(j)](/cfr/14/91.108.md?p=j), who is occupying an approved seat or berth, provided that the person being held has not reached his or her second birthday and does not occupy or use any restraining device;
    - (ii) Use the floor of the aircraft as a seat, provided that the person is on board for the purpose of engaging in sport parachuting; or
    - (iii) Notwithstanding any other requirement of this chapter, occupy an approved child restraint system furnished by the operator or one of the persons described in [paragraph (a)(3)(iii)(A)](#a-3-iii-A) of this section provided that:
      - (A) The child is accompanied by a parent, guardian, or attendant designated by the child's parent or guardian to attend to the safety of the child during the flight;
      - (B) Except as provided in paragraph (a)(3)(iii)(B)(4) of this action, the approved child restraint system bears one or more labels as follows:

        (1) Seats manufactured to U.S. standards between January 1, 1981, and February 25, 1985, must bear the label: “This child restraint system conforms to all applicable Federal motor vehicle safety standards”;

        (2) Seats manufactured to U.S. standards on or after February 26, 1985, must bear two labels:

        (i) “This child restraint system conforms to all applicable Federal motor vehicle safety standards”; and

        (ii) “THIS RESTRAINT IS CERTIFIED FOR USE IN MOTOR VEHICLES AND AIRCRAFT” in red lettering;

        (3) Seats that do not qualify under paragraphs (a)(3)(iii)(B)(1) and (a)(3)(iii)(B)(2) of this section must bear a label or markings showing:

        (ii) That the seat was manufactured under the standards of the United Nations;

        (iii) That the seat or child restraint device furnished by the operator was approved by the FAA through Type Certificate or Supplemental Type Certificate; or

        (iv) That the seat or child restraint device furnished by the operator, or one of the persons described in [paragraph (a)(3)(iii)(A)](#a-3-iii-A) of this section, was approved by the FAA in accordance with [§ 21.8(d)](/cfr/14/21.8.md?p=d) of this chapter or Technical Standard Order C-100b or a later version. The child restraint device manufactured by AmSafe, Inc. (CARES, Part No. 4082) and approved by the FAA in accordance with [§ 21.305(d)](/cfr/14/21.305.md?p=d) (2010 ed.) of this chapter may continue to bear a label or markings showing FAA approval in accordance with [§ 21.305(d)](/cfr/14/21.305.md?p=d) (2010 ed.) of this chapter.

        (4) Except as provided in [§ 91.107(a)(3)(iii)(B)(3)(iii)](#a-3-iii-B-3-iii) and [§ 91.107(a)(3)(iii)(B)(3)(iv)](#a-3-iii-B-3-iv), booster-type child restraint systems (as defined in Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 213 ([49 CFR 571.213](/cfr/49/571.213.md))), vest- and harness-type child restraint systems, and lap held child restraints are not approved for use in aircraft; and

      - (C) **The operator complies with the following requirements—** (1) The restraint system must be properly secured to an approved forward-facing seat or berth;

        (2) The child must be properly secured in the restraint system and must not exceed the specified weight limit for the restraint system; and

        (3) The restraint system must bear the appropriate label(s).

- (b) Unless otherwise stated, this section does not apply to operations conducted under part [121](/cfr/14/part121.md), [125](/cfr/14/part125.md), or 135 of this chapter. [Paragraph (a)(3)](#a-3) of this section does not apply to persons subject to [§ 91.105](/cfr/14/91.105.md).

# §91.108. Use of supplemental restraint systems.

- (a) **Use of supplemental restraint systems.** Except as provided in this section, no person may conduct an operation in a civil aircraft in which any individual on board is secured with a supplemental restraint system, as defined in [§ 1.1](/cfr/14/1.1.md) of this chapter.
- (b) **Doors opened or removed flight operations.** Except as provided under [paragraph (k)](#k) of this section:
  - (1) No person may operate a civil aircraft with the doors opened or removed unless—
    - (i) Each individual on board occupies an approved seat or berth with a safety belt and, if installed, shoulder harness, properly secured about the individual or an approved child restraint system properly secured to an approved seat or berth with a safety belt and, if installed, shoulder harness in accordance with [§ 91.107(a)(3)(iii)](/cfr/14/91.107.md?p=a-3-iii) or [§ 135.128(a)(2)](/cfr/14/135.128.md?p=a-2) of this chapter, during all phases of flight; or
    - (ii) **Each individual on board—**
      - (A) Occupies an approved seat or berth with a safety belt and, if installed, shoulder harness, properly secured about the individual during movement on the surface, takeoff, and landing; and
      - (B) Is secured during the remainder of the flight using a supplemental restraint system in accordance with, and that meets the requirements of, this section.
  - (2) Prior to releasing an FAA-approved safety belt and, if installed, shoulder harness during an operation with the doors opened or removed, an individual must be properly secured by a supplemental restraint system that is connected to an FAA-approved airframe attachment point. An individual cannot release their safety belt and, if installed, shoulder harness until the pilot in command authorizes them to do so.
- (c) **Supplemental restraint system design requirements.** Each supplemental restraint system must:
  - (1) Have a harness that secures around the torso of the individual using the supplemental restraint system;
  - (2) Have a lanyard that connects the harness to an FAA-approved airframe attachment point or points inside the aircraft and that ensures the torso of the individual using the supplemental restraint system remains inside the aircraft at all times;
  - (3) Not impede egress from the aircraft in an emergency after being released; and
  - (4) **Have a release mechanism that—**
    - (i) Can be quickly operated by the individual using the supplemental restraint system with minimal difficulty;
    - (ii) Is attached to the front or side of the harness in a location easily accessible to and visible by the individual using the supplemental restraint system;
    - (iii) Prevents inadvertent release; and
    - (iv) Can be released without the use of a knife to cut the restraint, and without any additional tool or the assistance of any other individual.
- (d) **Who may provide the supplemental restraint system.** The supplemental restraint system may be provided by the operator or by the individual using the supplemental restraint system. An operator or individual providing a supplemental restraint system must:
  - (1) Confirm with the pilot in command, either verbally or in writing, as determined by the pilot in command, the system's continued serviceability and readiness for its intended purpose; and
  - (2) Ensure the individual who will occupy the supplemental restraint system complies with the sizing criteria for which the system is rated.
- (e) **Supplemental restraint system operational requirements.** The following are supplemental restraint system operational requirements:
  - (1) **A qualified person designated by the operator must—**
    - (i) Connect the supplemental restraint system to an FAA-approved airframe attachment point or points rated equal to or greater than the weight of the individual using the supplemental restraint system (or the combined weight if there is more than one supplemental restraint system attached to an attachment point);
    - (ii) Not connect the supplemental restraint system to any airframe attachment point located in the flightdeck; and
    - (iii) Not connect the supplemental restraint system to any safety belt or shoulder harness attachment point(s) unless the attachment point is FAA-approved as described in [paragraph (e)(1)(i)](#e-1-i) of this section.
  - (2) A supplemental restraint system must fit the individual using it based on the sizing criteria for which the supplemental restraint system is rated.
  - (3) Nothing may attach to the supplemental restraint system that is not relevant to its function as defined under [§ 1.1](/cfr/14/1.1.md) of this chapter.
- (f) **Pilot in command.** The pilot in command—
  - (1) Has the overall responsibility to ensure that the supplemental restraint system meets the requirements of this section and must not permit an individual to use a supplemental restraint system that does not meet the requirements of this section;
  - (2) Must receive confirmation from the operator or any individual providing the supplemental restraint system of the system's continued serviceability and readiness for its intended purpose before each takeoff;
  - (3) May only permit an individual to use a supplemental restraint system provided by the operator or the pilot in command if that individual complies with the sizing criteria for which the supplemental restraint system is rated;
  - (4) Has final authority regarding whether the supplemental restraint system may be used during flight operations; and
  - (5) Has final authority to authorize an individual to release the FAA-approved safety belt and, if installed, shoulder harness and remain secured only by the supplemental restraint system.
- (g) **Passenger briefing.** Before each takeoff, the pilot in command must ensure that each passenger who intends to use a supplemental restraint system has been briefed on:
  - (1) **How to use, secure, and release the supplemental restraint system properly.** This requirement is not necessary for an individual providing their own supplemental restraint system, but that individual must meet the passenger demonstration requirements in [paragraph (h)](#h) of this section.
  - (2) Means of direct communication between crewmembers and passengers during normal and emergency operating procedures regarding—
    - (i) The use of headset and intercom systems, if installed;
    - (ii) How passengers will be notified of an event requiring action, including emergencies, egress procedures, and other unforeseen circumstances;
    - (iii) How each passenger will be notified when the passenger is permitted to release the FAA-approved safety belt and, if installed, shoulder harness, and move within the aircraft using the supplemental restraint system;
    - (iv) How each passenger will be notified when the passenger must return to their seat and secure the FAA-approved safety belt and, if installed, shoulder harness; and
    - (v) **When and how to notify a crewmember of safety concerns.**
- (h) **Passenger demonstration.** After the briefing required by [paragraph (g)](#g) of this section, prior to ground movement, any passenger intending to use a supplemental restraint system must demonstrate to the pilot in command, a crewmember, or other qualified person designated by the operator, the following:
  - (1) The ability to use, secure, and release the FAA-approved safety belt and, if installed, shoulder harness, and
  - (2) The ability to accomplish all actions required for quick release of the supplemental restraint system without assistance and with minimal difficulty.
    - (i) **Individuals not permitted to use supplemental restraint systems.** The following individuals are not permitted to use a supplemental restraint system, as defined in [§ 1.1](/cfr/14/1.1.md) of this chapter:
  - (1) **Any passenger who cannot demonstrate—**
    - (i) That they are able to use, secure, and release the FAA-approved safety belt and, if installed, shoulder harness; or
    - (ii) That they are able to release quickly the supplemental restraint system with no assistance and with minimal difficulty.
  - (2) **Any individual who is less than 15 years of age.**
  - (3) **Any individual seated in the flightdeck.**
  - (4) **Any passenger who occupies or uses an approved child restraint system.**
- (j) **Lap-held child.** Notwithstanding any other requirement of this chapter, a child who has not reached their second birthday may not be held by an adult during civil aircraft operations when:
  - (1) The adult uses a supplemental restraint system; or
  - (2) **The aircraft doors are opened or removed.**
- (k) **Excluded operations.** Unless otherwise stated:
  - (1) This section does not apply to operations conducted under part [105](/cfr/14/part105.md) or [133](/cfr/14/part133.md) of this chapter and does not apply to the persons described in [§ 91.107(a)(3)(ii)](/cfr/14/91.107.md?p=a-3-ii) of this chapter.
  - (2) Operators subject to the requirements of [paragraph (b)(1)](#b-1) of this section may operate an aircraft with doors opened or removed, notwithstanding any flight crewmembers on board who are subject to the requirements of §§ [91.105](/cfr/14/91.105.md) or [135.171](/cfr/14/135.171.md) of this chapter and who need to unfasten their shoulder harnesses in accordance with those sections.
  - (3) [Paragraph (b)(2)](#b-2) of this section does not apply to any flight crewmembers subject to §§ [91.105](/cfr/14/91.105.md) or [135.171](/cfr/14/135.171.md) of this chapter to the extent that the flight crewmembers need to unfasten their shoulder harnesses in accordance with those sections.

# §91.109. Flight instruction; Simulated instrument flight and certain flight tests.

- (a) No person may operate a civil aircraft (except a manned free balloon) that is being used for flight instruction unless that aircraft has fully functioning dual controls. However, instrument flight instruction may be given in an airplane that is equipped with a single, functioning throwover control wheel that controls the elevator and ailerons, in place of fixed, dual controls, when—
  - (1) The instructor has determined that the flight can be conducted safely; and
  - (2) The person manipulating the controls has at least a private pilot certificate with appropriate category and class ratings.
- (b) An airplane equipped with a single, functioning throwover control wheel that controls the elevator and ailerons, in place of fixed, dual controls may be used for flight instruction to conduct a flight review required by [§ 61.56](/cfr/14/61.56.md) of this chapter, or to obtain recent flight experience or an instrument proficiency check required by [§ 61.57](/cfr/14/61.57.md) when—
  - (1) The airplane is equipped with operable rudder pedals at both pilot stations;
  - (2) The pilot manipulating the controls is qualified to serve and serves as pilot in command during the entire flight;
  - (3) The instructor is current and qualified to serve as pilot in command of the airplane, meets the requirements of [§ 61.195(b)](/cfr/14/61.195.md?p=b), and has logged at least 25 hours of pilot-in-command flight time in the make and model of airplane; and
  - (4) **The pilot in command and the instructor have determined the flight can be conducted safely.**
- (c) No person may operate a civil aircraft in simulated instrument flight unless—
  - (1) **The other control seat is occupied by a safety pilot who possesses at least—**
    - (i) A private pilot certificate with category and class ratings appropriate to the aircraft being flown; or
    - (ii) For purposes of providing training for a solo cross-country endorsement under [§ 61.93](/cfr/14/61.93.md) of this chapter, a flight instructor certificate with an appropriate sport pilot rating and meets the requirements of [§ 61.412](/cfr/14/61.412.md) of this chapter.
  - (2) The safety pilot has adequate vision forward and to each side of the aircraft, or a competent observer in the aircraft adequately supplements the vision of the safety pilot; and
  - (3) Except in the case of lighter-than-air aircraft, that aircraft is equipped with fully functioning dual controls. However, simulated instrument flight may be conducted in a single-engine airplane, equipped with a single, functioning, throwover control wheel, in place of fixed, dual controls of the elevator and ailerons, when—
    - (i) The safety pilot has determined that the flight can be conducted safely; and
    - (ii) The person manipulating the controls has at least a private pilot certificate with appropriate category and class ratings.
- (d) No person may operate a civil aircraft that is being used for a flight test for an airline transport pilot certificate or a class or type rating on that certificate, or for a [part 121](/cfr/14/part121.md) proficiency flight test, unless the pilot seated at the controls, other than the pilot being checked, is fully qualified to act as pilot in command of the aircraft.

# §91.111. Operating near other aircraft.

- (a) No person may operate an aircraft so close to another aircraft as to create a collision hazard.
- (b) No person may operate an aircraft in formation flight except by arrangement with the pilot in command of each aircraft in the formation.
- (c) No person may operate an aircraft, carrying passengers for hire, in formation flight.

# §91.113. Right-of-way rules: Except water operations.

- (a) **Inapplicability.** This section does not apply to the operation of an aircraft on water.
- (b) **General.** When weather conditions permit, regardless of whether an operation is conducted under instrument flight rules or visual flight rules, vigilance shall be maintained by each person operating an aircraft so as to see and avoid other aircraft. When a rule of this section gives another aircraft the right-of-way, the pilot shall give way to that aircraft and may not pass over, under, or ahead of it unless well clear.
- (c) **In distress.** An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other air traffic.
- (d) **Converging.** When aircraft of the same category are converging at approximately the same altitude (except head-on, or nearly so), the aircraft to the other's right has the right-of-way. If the aircraft are of different categories—
  - (1) A balloon has the right-of-way over any other category of aircraft;
  - (2) **A glider has the right-of-way over powered aircraft.**
  - (3) An airship has the right-of-way over all other powered aircraft, except for an aircraft towing or refueling other aircraft.
  - (4) **An aircraft towing or refueling other aircraft has the right-of-way over all other powered aircraft.**
- (e) **Approaching head-on.** When aircraft are approaching each other head-on, or nearly so, each pilot of each aircraft shall alter course to the right.
- (f) **Overtaking.** Each aircraft that is being overtaken has the right-of-way and each pilot of an overtaking aircraft shall alter course to the right to pass well clear.
- (g) **Landing.** Aircraft, while on final approach to land or while landing, have the right-of-way over other aircraft in flight or operating on the surface, except that they shall not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway surface which has already landed and is attempting to make way for an aircraft on final approach. When two or more aircraft are approaching an airport for the purpose of landing, the aircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way, but it shall not take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another which is on final approach to land or to overtake that aircraft.

# §91.115. Right-of-way rules: Water operations.

- (a) **General.** Each person operating an aircraft on the water shall, insofar as possible, keep clear of all vessels and avoid impeding their navigation, and shall give way to any vessel or other aircraft that is given the right-of-way by any rule of this section.
- (b) **Crossing.** When aircraft, or an aircraft and a vessel, are on crossing courses, the aircraft or vessel to the other's right has the right-of-way.
- (c) **Approaching head-on.** When aircraft, or an aircraft and a vessel, are approaching head-on, or nearly so, each shall alter its course to the right to keep well clear.
- (d) **Overtaking.** Each aircraft or vessel that is being overtaken has the right-of-way, and the one overtaking shall alter course to keep well clear.
- (e) **Special circumstances.** When aircraft, or an aircraft and a vessel, approach so as to involve risk of collision, each aircraft or vessel shall proceed with careful regard to existing circumstances, including the limitations of the respective craft.

# §91.117. Aircraft speed.

- (a) Unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator, no person may operate an aircraft below 10,000 feet MSL at an indicated airspeed of more than 250 knots (288 m.p.h.).
- (b) Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above the surface within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport of a Class C or Class D airspace area at an indicated airspeed of more than 200 knots (230 mph.). This [paragraph (b)](#b) does not apply to any operations within a Class B airspace area. Such operations shall comply with [paragraph (a)](#a) of this section.
- (c) No person may operate an aircraft in the airspace underlying a Class B airspace area designated for an airport or in a VFR corridor designated through such a Class B airspace area, at an indicated airspeed of more than 200 knots (230 mph).
- (d) If the minimum safe airspeed for any particular operation is greater than the maximum speed prescribed in this section, the aircraft may be operated at that minimum speed.

# §91.119. Minimum safe altitudes: General.


Except when necessary for takeoff or landing, no person may operate an aircraft below the following altitudes:

- (a) **Anywhere.** An altitude allowing, if a power unit fails, an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or property on the surface.
- (b) **Over congested areas.** Over any congested area of a city, town, or settlement, or over any open air assembly of persons, an altitude of 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal radius of 2,000 feet of the aircraft.
- (c) **Over other than congested areas.** An altitude of 500 feet above the surface, except over open water or sparsely populated areas. In those cases, the aircraft may not be operated closer than 500 feet to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure.
- (d) **Helicopters, powered parachutes, and weight-shift-control aircraft.** If the operation is conducted without hazard to persons or property on the surface—
  - (1) A helicopter may be operated at less than the minimums prescribed in paragraph [(b)](#b) or [(c)](#c) of this section, provided each person operating the helicopter complies with any routes or altitudes specifically prescribed for helicopters by the FAA; and
  - (2) A powered parachute or weight-shift-control aircraft may be operated at less than the minimums prescribed in [paragraph (c)](#c) of this section.

# §91.121. Altimeter settings.

- (a) Each person operating an aircraft shall maintain the cruising altitude or flight level of that aircraft, as the case may be, by reference to an altimeter that is set, when operating—
  - (1) **Below 18,000 feet MSL, to—**
    - (i) The current reported altimeter setting of a station along the route and within 100 nautical miles of the aircraft;
    - (ii) If there is no station within the area prescribed in [paragraph (a)(1)(i)](#a-1-i) of this section, the current reported altimeter setting of an appropriate available station; or
    - (iii) In the case of an aircraft not equipped with a radio, the elevation of the departure airport or an appropriate altimeter setting available before departure; or
  - (2) At or above 18,000 feet MSL, to 29.92″ Hg.
- (b) The lowest usable flight level is determined by the atmospheric pressure in the area of operation as shown in the following table:
- (c) To convert minimum altitude prescribed under §§ [91.119](/cfr/14/91.119.md) and [91.177](/cfr/14/91.177.md) to the minimum flight level, the pilot shall take the flight level equivalent of the minimum altitude in feet and add the appropriate number of feet specified below, according to the current reported altimeter setting:

# §91.123. Compliance with ATC clearances and instructions.

- (a) When an ATC clearance has been obtained, no pilot in command may deviate from that clearance unless an amended clearance is obtained, an emergency exists, or the deviation is in response to a traffic alert and collision avoidance system resolution advisory. However, except in Class A airspace, a pilot may cancel an IFR flight plan if the operation is being conducted in VFR weather conditions. When a pilot is uncertain of an ATC clearance, that pilot shall immediately request clarification from ATC.
- (b) Except in an emergency, no person may operate an aircraft contrary to an ATC instruction in an area in which air traffic control is exercised.
- (c) Each pilot in command who, in an emergency, or in response to a traffic alert and collision avoidance system resolution advisory, deviates from an ATC clearance or instruction shall notify ATC of that deviation as soon as possible.
- (d) Each pilot in command who (though not deviating from a rule of this subpart) is given priority by ATC in an emergency, shall submit a detailed report of that emergency within 48 hours to the manager of that ATC facility, if requested by ATC.
- (e) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person operating an aircraft may operate that aircraft according to any clearance or instruction that has been issued to the pilot of another aircraft for radar air traffic control purposes.

# §91.125. ATC light signals.


ATC light signals have the meaning shown in the following table:


# §91.126. Operating on or in the vicinity of an airport in Class G airspace.

- (a) **General.** Unless otherwise authorized or required, each person operating an aircraft on or in the vicinity of an airport in a Class G airspace area must comply with the requirements of this section.
- (b) **Direction of turns.** When approaching to land at an airport without an operating control tower in Class G airspace—
  - (1) Each pilot of a powered fixed-wing aircraft must make all turns to the left unless the airport displays approved light signals or visual markings indicating that turns should be made to the right, in which case the pilot must make all turns to the right; and
  - (2) Each pilot of any other powered aircraft must avoid the flow of the aircraft specified in [paragraph (b)(1)](#b-1) of this section.
- (c) **Flap settings.** Except when necessary for training or certification, the pilot in command of a civil turbojet-powered aircraft must use, as a final flap setting, the minimum certificated landing flap setting set forth in the approved performance information in the Airplane Flight Manual for the applicable conditions. However, each pilot in command has the final authority and responsibility for the safe operation of the pilot's airplane, and may use a different flap setting for that airplane if the pilot determines that it is necessary in the interest of safety.
- (d) **Communications with control towers.** Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft to, from, through, or on an airport having an operational control tower unless two-way radio communications are maintained between that aircraft and the control tower. Communications must be established prior to 4 nautical miles from the airport, up to and including 2,500 feet AGL. However, if the aircraft radio fails in flight, the pilot in command may operate that aircraft and land if weather conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums, visual contact with the tower is maintained, and a clearance to land is received. If the aircraft radio fails while in flight under IFR, the pilot must comply with [§ 91.185](/cfr/14/91.185.md).

# §91.127. Operating on or in the vicinity of an airport in Class E airspace.

- (a) Unless otherwise required by [part 93](/cfr/14/part93.md) of this chapter or unless otherwise authorized or required by the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the Class E airspace area, each person operating an aircraft on or in the vicinity of an airport in a Class E airspace area must comply with the requirements of [§ 91.126](/cfr/14/91.126.md).
- (b) **Departures.** Each pilot of an aircraft must comply with any traffic patterns established for that airport in [part 93](/cfr/14/part93.md) of this chapter.
- (c) **Communications with control towers.** Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft to, from, through, or on an airport having an operational control tower unless two-way radio communications are maintained between that aircraft and the control tower. Communications must be established prior to 4 nautical miles from the airport, up to and including 2,500 feet AGL. However, if the aircraft radio fails in flight, the pilot in command may operate that aircraft and land if weather conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums, visual contact with the tower is maintained, and a clearance to land is received. If the aircraft radio fails while in flight under IFR, the pilot must comply with [§ 91.185](/cfr/14/91.185.md).

# §91.129. Operations in Class D airspace.

- (a) **General.** Unless otherwise authorized or required by the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the Class D airspace area, each person operating an aircraft in Class D airspace must comply with the applicable provisions of this section. In addition, each person must comply with §§ [91.126](/cfr/14/91.126.md) and [91.127](/cfr/14/91.127.md). For the purpose of this section, the primary airport is the airport for which the Class D airspace area is designated. A satellite airport is any other airport within the Class D airspace area.
- (b) **Deviations.** An operator may deviate from any provision of this section under the provisions of an ATC authorization issued by the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the airspace concerned. ATC may authorize a deviation on a continuing basis or for an individual flight, as appropriate.
- (c) **Communications.** Each person operating an aircraft in Class D airspace must meet the following two-way radio communications requirements:
  - (1) **Arrival or through flight.** Each person must establish two-way radio communications with the ATC facility (including foreign ATC in the case of foreign airspace designated in the United States) providing air traffic services prior to entering that airspace and thereafter maintain those communications while within that airspace.
  - (2) **Departing flight.** Each person—
    - (i) From the primary airport or satellite airport with an operating control tower must establish and maintain two-way radio communications with the control tower, and thereafter as instructed by ATC while operating in the Class D airspace area; or
    - (ii) From a satellite airport without an operating control tower, must establish and maintain two-way radio communications with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the Class D airspace area as soon as practicable after departing.
- (d) **Communications failure.** Each person who operates an aircraft in a Class D airspace area must maintain two-way radio communications with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over that area.
  - (1) If the aircraft radio fails in flight under IFR, the pilot must comply with [§ 91.185](/cfr/14/91.185.md) of the part.
  - (2) If the aircraft radio fails in flight under VFR, the pilot in command may operate that aircraft and land if—
    - (i) Weather conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums;
    - (ii) Visual contact with the tower is maintained; and
    - (iii) **A clearance to land is received.**
- (e) **Minimum altitudes when operating to an airport in Class D airspace.**
  - (1) Unless required by the applicable distance-from-cloud criteria, each pilot operating a large or turbine-powered airplane must enter the traffic pattern at an altitude of at least 1,500 feet above the elevation of the airport and maintain at least 1,500 feet until further descent is required for a safe landing.
  - (2) Each pilot operating a large or turbine-powered airplane approaching to land on a runway served by an instrument approach procedure with vertical guidance, if the airplane is so equipped, must:
    - (i) Operate that airplane at an altitude at or above the glide path between the published final approach fix and the decision altitude (DA), or decision height (DH), as applicable; or
    - (ii) If compliance with the applicable distance-from-cloud criteria requires glide path interception closer in, operate that airplane at or above the glide path, between the point of interception of glide path and the DA or the DH.
  - (3) Each pilot operating an airplane approaching to land on a runway served by a visual approach slope indicator must maintain an altitude at or above the glide path until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing.
  - (4) Paragraphs [(e)(2)](#e-2) and [(e)(3)](#e-3) of this section do not prohibit normal bracketing maneuvers above or below the glide path that are conducted for the purpose of remaining on the glide path.
- (f) **Approaches.** Except when conducting a circling approach under [part 97](/cfr/14/part97.md) of this chapter or unless otherwise required by ATC, each pilot must—
  - (1) Circle the airport to the left, if operating an airplane; or
  - (2) **Avoid the flow of fixed-wing aircraft, if operating a helicopter.**
- (g) **Departures.** No person may operate an aircraft departing from an airport except in compliance with the following:
  - (1) Each pilot must comply with any departure procedures established for that airport by the FAA.
  - (2) Unless otherwise required by the prescribed departure procedure for that airport or the applicable distance from clouds criteria, each pilot of a turbine-powered airplane and each pilot of a large airplane must climb to an altitude of 1,500 feet above the surface as rapidly as practicable.
- (h) **Noise abatement.** Where a formal runway use program has been established by the FAA, each pilot of a large or turbine-powered airplane assigned a noise abatement runway by ATC must use that runway. However, consistent with the final authority of the pilot in command concerning the safe operation of the aircraft as prescribed in [§ 91.3(a)](/cfr/14/91.3.md?p=a), ATC may assign a different runway if requested by the pilot in the interest of safety.
- (i) **Takeoff, landing, taxi clearance.** No person may, at any airport with an operating control tower, operate an aircraft on a runway or taxiway, or take off or land an aircraft, unless an appropriate clearance is received from ATC.

# §91.130. Operations in Class C airspace.

- (a) **General.** Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each aircraft operation in Class C airspace must be conducted in compliance with this section and [§ 91.129](/cfr/14/91.129.md). For the purpose of this section, the primary airport is the airport for which the Class C airspace area is designated. A satellite airport is any other airport within the Class C airspace area.
- (b) **Traffic patterns.** No person may take off or land an aircraft at a satellite airport within a Class C airspace area except in compliance with FAA arrival and departure traffic patterns.
- (c) **Communications.** Each person operating an aircraft in Class C airspace must meet the following two-way radio communications requirements:
  - (1) **Arrival or through flight.** Each person must establish two-way radio communications with the ATC facility (including foreign ATC in the case of foreign airspace designated in the United States) providing air traffic services prior to entering that airspace and thereafter maintain those communications while within that airspace.
  - (2) **Departing flight.** Each person—
    - (i) From the primary airport or satellite airport with an operating control tower must establish and maintain two-way radio communications with the control tower, and thereafter as instructed by ATC while operating in the Class C airspace area; or
    - (ii) From a satellite airport without an operating control tower, must establish and maintain two-way radio communications with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the Class C airspace area as soon as practicable after departing.
- (d) **Equipment requirements.** Unless otherwise authorized by the ATC having jurisdiction over the Class C airspace area, no person may operate an aircraft within a Class C airspace area designated for an airport unless that aircraft is equipped with the applicable equipment specified in [§ 91.215](/cfr/14/91.215.md), and after January 1, 2020, [§ 91.225](/cfr/14/91.225.md).
- (e) **Deviations.** An operator may deviate from any provision of this section under the provisions of an ATC authorization issued by the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the airspace concerned. ATC may authorize a deviation on a continuing basis or for an individual flight, as appropriate.

# §91.131. Operations in Class B airspace.

- (a) **Operating rules.** No person may operate an aircraft within a Class B airspace area except in compliance with [§ 91.129](/cfr/14/91.129.md) and the following rules:
  - (1) The operator must receive an ATC clearance from the ATC facility having jurisdiction for that area before operating an aircraft in that area.
  - (2) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each person operating a large turbine engine-powered airplane to or from a primary airport for which a Class B airspace area is designated must operate at or above the designated floors of the Class B airspace area while within the lateral limits of that area.
  - (3) Any person conducting pilot training operations at an airport within a Class B airspace area must comply with any procedures established by ATC for such operations in that area.
- (b) **Pilot requirements.**
  - (1) No person may take off or land a civil aircraft at an airport within a Class B airspace area or operate a civil aircraft within a Class B airspace area unless—
    - (i) The pilot in command holds at least a private pilot certificate;
    - (ii) **The pilot in command holds a recreational pilot certificate and has met—**
      - (A) The requirements of [§ 61.101(d)](/cfr/14/61.101.md?p=d) of this chapter; or
      - (B) The requirements for a student pilot seeking a recreational pilot certificate in [§ 61.94](/cfr/14/61.94.md) of this chapter;
    - (iii) **The pilot in command holds a sport pilot certificate and has met—**
      - (A) The requirements of [§ 61.325](/cfr/14/61.325.md) of this chapter; or
      - (B) The requirements for a student pilot seeking a recreational pilot certificate in [§ 61.94](/cfr/14/61.94.md) of this chapter; or
    - (iv) The aircraft is operated by a student pilot who has met the requirements of [§ 61.94](/cfr/14/61.94.md) or [§ 61.95](/cfr/14/61.95.md) of this chapter, as applicable.
  - (2) Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraphs [(b)(1)(ii)](#b-1-ii), [(b)(1)(iii)](#b-1-iii) and [(b)(1)(iv)](#b-1-iv) of this section, no person may take off or land a civil aircraft at those airports listed in [section 4](/cfr/14/4.md) of appendix D to this part unless the pilot in command holds at least a private pilot certificate.
- (c) **Communications and navigation equipment requirements.** Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft within a Class B airspace area unless that aircraft is equipped with—
  - (1) **For IFR operation.** An operable VOR or TACAN receiver or an operable and suitable RNAV system; and
  - (2) **For all operations.** An operable two-way radio capable of communications with ATC on appropriate frequencies for that Class B airspace area.
- (d) **Other equipment requirements.** No person may operate an aircraft in a Class B airspace area unless the aircraft is equipped with—
  - (1) The applicable operating transponder and automatic altitude reporting equipment specified in [§ 91.215 (a)](/cfr/14/91.215.md?p=a), except as provided in [§ 91.215 (e)](/cfr/14/91.215.md?p=e), and
  - (2) After January 1, 2020, the applicable Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast Out equipment specified in [§ 91.225](/cfr/14/91.225.md).

# §91.133. Restricted and prohibited areas.

- (a) No person may operate an aircraft within a restricted area (designated in [part 73](/cfr/14/part73.md)) contrary to the restrictions imposed, or within a prohibited area, unless that person has the permission of the using or controlling agency, as appropriate.
- (b) Each person conducting, within a restricted area, an aircraft operation (approved by the using agency) that creates the same hazards as the operations for which the restricted area was designated may deviate from the rules of this subpart that are not compatible with the operation of the aircraft.

# §91.135. Operations in Class A airspace.


Except as provided in [paragraph (d)](#d) of this section, each person operating an aircraft in Class A airspace must conduct that operation under instrument flight rules (IFR) and in compliance with the following:

- (a) **Clearance.** Operations may be conducted only under an ATC clearance received prior to entering the airspace.
- (b) **Communications.** Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each aircraft operating in Class A airspace must be equipped with a two-way radio capable of communicating with ATC on a frequency assigned by ATC. Each pilot must maintain two-way radio communications with ATC while operating in Class A airspace.
- (c) **Equipment requirements.** Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft within Class A airspace unless that aircraft is equipped with the applicable equipment specified in [§ 91.215](/cfr/14/91.215.md), and after January 1, 2020, [§ 91.225](/cfr/14/91.225.md).
- (d) **ATC authorizations.** An operator may deviate from any provision of this section under the provisions of an ATC authorization issued by the ATC facility having jurisdiction of the airspace concerned. In the case of an inoperative transponder, ATC may immediately approve an operation within a Class A airspace area allowing flight to continue, if desired, to the airport of ultimate destination, including any intermediate stops, or to proceed to a place where suitable repairs can be made, or both. Requests for deviation from any provision of this section must be submitted in writing, at least 4 days before the proposed operation. ATC may authorize a deviation on a continuing basis or for an individual flight.

# §91.137. Temporary flight restrictions in the vicinity of disaster/hazard areas.

- (a) The Administrator will issue a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) designating an area within which temporary flight restrictions apply and specifying the hazard or condition requiring their imposition, whenever he determines it is necessary in order to—
  - (1) Protect persons and property on the surface or in the air from a hazard associated with an incident on the surface;
  - (2) Provide a safe environment for the operation of disaster relief aircraft; or
  - (3) Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing and other aircraft above an incident or event which may generate a high degree of public interest.
- (b) When a NOTAM has been issued under [paragraph (a)(1)](#a-1) of this section, no person may operate an aircraft within the designated area unless that aircraft is participating in the hazard relief activities and is being operated under the direction of the official in charge of on scene emergency response activities.
- (c) When a NOTAM has been issued under [paragraph (a)(2)](#a-2) of this section, no person may operate an aircraft within the designated area unless at least one of the following conditions are met:
  - (1) The aircraft is participating in hazard relief activities and is being operated under the direction of the official in charge of on scene emergency response activities.
  - (2) **The aircraft is carrying law enforcement officials.**
  - (3) **The aircraft is operating under the ATC approved IFR flight plan.**
  - (4) The operation is conducted directly to or from an airport within the area, or is necessitated by the impracticability of VFR flight above or around the area due to weather, or terrain; notification is given to the Flight Service Station (FSS) or ATC facility specified in the NOTAM to receive advisories concerning disaster relief aircraft operations; and the operation does not hamper or endanger relief activities and is not conducted for the purpose of observing the disaster.
  - (5) The aircraft is carrying properly accredited news representatives, and, prior to entering the area, a flight plan is filed with the appropriate FAA or ATC facility specified in the Notice to Airmen and the operation is conducted above the altitude used by the disaster relief aircraft, unless otherwise authorized by the official in charge of on scene emergency response activities.
- (d) When a NOTAM has been issued under [paragraph (a)(3)](#a-3) of this section, no person may operate an aircraft within the designated area unless at least one of the following conditions is met:
  - (1) The operation is conducted directly to or from an airport within the area, or is necessitated by the impracticability of VFR flight above or around the area due to weather or terrain, and the operation is not conducted for the purpose of observing the incident or event.
  - (2) **The aircraft is operating under an ATC approved IFR flight plan.**
  - (3) **The aircraft is carrying incident or event personnel, or law enforcement officials.**
  - (4) The aircraft is carrying properly accredited news representatives and, prior to entering that area, a flight plan is filed with the appropriate FSS or ATC facility specified in the NOTAM.
- (e) Flight plans filed and notifications made with an FSS or ATC facility under this section shall include the following information:
  - (1) **Aircraft identification, type and color.**
  - (2) **Radio communications frequencies to be used.**
  - (3) **Proposed times of entry of, and exit from, the designated area.**
  - (4) **Name of news media or organization and purpose of flight.**
  - (5) **Any other information requested by ATC.**

# §91.138. Temporary flight restrictions in national disaster areas in the State of Hawaii.

- (a) When the Administrator has determined, pursuant to a request and justification provided by the Governor of the State of Hawaii, or the Governor's designee, that an inhabited area within a declared national disaster area in the State of Hawaii is in need of protection for humanitarian reasons, the Administrator will issue a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) designating an area within which temporary flight restrictions apply. The Administrator will designate the extent and duration of the temporary flight restrictions necessary to provide for the protection of persons and property on the surface.
- (b) When a NOTAM has been issued in accordance with this section, no person may operate an aircraft within the designated area unless at least one of the following conditions is met:
  - (1) That person has obtained authorization from the official in charge of associated emergency or disaster relief response activities, and is operating the aircraft under the conditions of that authorization.
  - (2) **The aircraft is carrying law enforcement officials.**
  - (3) **The aircraft is carrying persons involved in an emergency or a legitimate scientific purpose.**
  - (4) The aircraft is carrying properly accredited newspersons, and that prior to entering the area, a flight plan is filed with the appropriate FAA or ATC facility specified in the NOTAM and the operation is conducted in compliance with the conditions and restrictions established by the official in charge of on-scene emergency response activities.
  - (5) **The aircraft is operating in accordance with an ATC clearance or instruction.**
- (c) A NOTAM issued under this section is effective for 90 days or until the national disaster area designation is terminated, whichever comes first, unless terminated by notice or extended by the Administrator at the request of the Governor of the State of Hawaii or the Governor's designee.

# §91.139. Emergency air traffic rules.

- (a) This section prescribes a process for utilizing Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) to advise of the issuance and operations under emergency air traffic rules and regulations and designates the official who is authorized to issue NOTAMs on behalf of the Administrator in certain matters under this section.
- (b) Whenever the Administrator determines that an emergency condition exists, or will exist, relating to the FAA's ability to operate the air traffic control system and during which normal flight operations under this chapter cannot be conducted consistent with the required levels of safety and efficiency—
  - (1) The Administrator issues an immediately effective air traffic rule or regulation in response to that emergency condition; and
  - (2) The Administrator or the Associate Administrator for Air Traffic may utilize the NOTAM system to provide notification of the issuance of the rule or regulation.
- (c) When a NOTAM has been issued under this section, no person may operate an aircraft, or other device governed by the regulation concerned, within the designated airspace except in accordance with the authorizations, terms, and conditions prescribed in the regulation covered by the NOTAM.

# §91.141. Flight restrictions in the proximity of the Presidential and other parties.


No person may operate an aircraft over or in the vicinity of any area to be visited or traveled by the President, the Vice President, or other public figures contrary to the restrictions established by the Administrator and published in a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM).


# §91.143. Flight limitation in the proximity of space flight operations.


When a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) is issued in accordance with this section, no person may operate any aircraft of U.S. registry, or pilot any aircraft under the authority of an airman certificate issued by the Federal Aviation Administration, within areas designated in a NOTAM for space flight operation except when authorized by ATC.